Brooke Kihle
Professor Johns
Seminar in Composition
12/10/14
Genetic
Determinism is Incomplete
Imagine specific characteristics that make you who you
are, singularly determined by your genome. Your openness to new things, tendency
to murder, or hair color are all created from specific genes woven together
into your DNA. An individual’s DNA encodes our genome, which essentially is the
instructions to how we develop and function- who we are- through a combination
of genes and non-coding sequences of the DNA/RNA. This theory is classified as
genetic determinism; the ideology that “who we are” is predetermined by our
genome. However, through modern research
on genetically inherited diseases like BRCA1 (predisposition to breast cancer)
and PKU (phenylketonuria) we can prove inaccuracies in modern science. Also, by
understanding the limitations with current modern science like The Human Genome
Project we further understand how incomplete genetic determinism is. Lewontin’s
theories in Biology as an Ideology supports
genetic determinism to be incomplete. There are environmental factors that also
contribute to a human’s phenotype and genotype variation that complicates
specific genetic inheritance. In, Lilith’s
Brood, Butler shows the Oankali’s inaccuracies of the current human
generation and through their misunderstandings tries to prove to the reader the
inaccuracies of modern science. The Oankali’s misunderstandings on genetics are
metaphorically shown by Akin and Jodahs, constructs from Oankali-human hybrid
breeding, and their external and internal struggle. Butler uses the Oankali, representing
the faults of modern science, shown by ideals of Lewontin and scientific
research which offer a more complete solution for science institutions.
First, it’s important to understand the science behind
the theory of genetic determinism. In Biology
as an Ideology, Lewontin explains the foundation of this theory stating,
“organisms are nothing but the battle ground between the outside forces and the
inside forces. Organisms are the passive consequences of external and internal
activities beyond their control” (Lewontin109). This meaning genetic
determinist believe our genetically inherited DNA solely creates our phenotype.
This view states that we are separate from the outside world, the environment, and
that we only interact but are not influenced by such environmental factors.
Therefore, as individuals we are created by the “inside” forces-genotypes and
explicitly separated from the “outside” forces that is our environment.
However, there’s an argument to this theory that starts
the conflict between “nature” and “nurture”. Genetic determinist are cleverly
deemed the “nature” side of this conflict because of their belief that we are
made up by our “nature”, our genome. Consequently, the “nurture” view supports
environment significance in creating individuals. Lewontin’s theories explain
that “nature” and “nurture” along with random variation create our phenotype.
This supports the incompleteness of genetic determinism because both our genome
and environmental factors contribute to create our overall phenotype and human
characteristics. Picture it this way, when someone goes on trial, they present
a case, explaining the situation and then a jury votes on their punishment.
Let’s say a man killed his father (dramatic I know but I promise I’m trying to
prove a point) and the lawyer presents his case, stating this man had a family
history of bipolar disorder and his dad abused him as a child; which factors
would influence the jury’s decision on his sentence? Both the man’s possible
inheritance of bipolar disorder, traumatic childhood and emotional instability
with his father all contribute into motives for reasons he killed his father.
Now, of course this doesn’t make what he did right, I’m simply stating you
can’t ignore one factor from another they both contribute to who this man is
and why he killed his father. This can be brought back to explaining our
phenotype, showing that as individuals we are made of both these genomic and
environmental influences. Lewontin summarizes this theory stating, “History far
transcends any narrow limitations that are claimed for either the power of
genes or the power of the environment to circumscribe us. Like the House of
Lords that destroyed its own power to limit the political development of
Britain in the successive Reform Acts to which assented, so the genes, in
making possible the development of human consciousness, have surrendered their
power both to determine the individual and its environment” (Lewontin 123).
Other scientists support Lewontin’s theory through
scientific research. “An individual’s phenotype is often as much a product of
the environment as it is a product of the genotype” (Freeman, Quillan, &
Allison 273). One example of environmental influence is seen through research
on the genetically inherited disease phenylketonuria (PKU) which causes
individuals to enzymatically convert phenylalanine to tyrosine. This results in
an accumulation of phenylpyruvic acid which causes mental retardation. However,
an individual who inherits this disease isn’t predetermined to have mental
retardation; newborns can be tested for the disease and if identified early and
placed on a low phenylalanine diet can develop normally. Thus individuals
treated with PKU but develop into healthy adults prove that those with certain
genetic disease are neither predetermined to their disease’s symptoms nor
singularly controlled by their genes.
Also,
research on the BRCA1, a genetically inherited predisposition to breast cancer,
proves this theory to be true. Anyone with the defected gene increases their
chance of getting breast cancer by 60-90%. However, having BRCA1 does not
guarantee you will have breast cancer. There are possible solutions to curing
an individual with breast cancer or avoiding the possibility of getting breast
cancer altogether. For example, surgical procedures like a mastectomy- surgically
removing the entire breast tissue can eradicate the possibility of getting the
cancer as well as literally “cutting out” the cancer of those infected. Both
these genetically inherited diseases represent how incomplete genetic
determinism is. The individuals are controlled by both their genotype as well
as environmental factors which ultimately contributed to their phenotype.
With any scientific theory there’s opposition, in this
case genetic determinist which correlates directly to the Oankali’s belief that
they can genetically predetermine a hybrid human-Oankali offspring. The Oankali
may be an alien species but their thought process isn’t too far from earth,
many contemporary scientist follow the theory of genetic determinism with
projects like the Human Genome Project (HGP). “HGP researchers have deciphered
the human genome in three major ways: determining the order, or
"sequence," of all the bases in our genome's DNA; making maps that
show the locations of genes for major sections of all our chromosomes; and
producing what are called linkage maps, complex versions of the type originated
in early Drosophilaresearch, through which inherited traits (such
as those for genetic disease) can be tracked over generations.” (National Human
Genome Research Institution). The theory behind the HGP is to create a
“blueprint” of the human genome with a goal to eventually use this “blueprint”
and compare it to any individual’s genome. The HGP takes linkage mapping to
determine if individual’s DNA has certain diseases or not. This meaning, they
locate mutations on certain chromosomes for certain diseases and if the individual’s
DNA has the same mutation in the same location than they have this disease.
This essentially would determine every human’s genomic make-up and one could
find out what disease they will inevitably acquire if not already have and
other mutations and predispositions.
However,
this has not yet been accomplished. The HGP still has a long way before being
deemed completely scientifically accurate and precise. There are many
misconceptions that go with the current state of the HGP as well. An article in
the New York Times, My Genome, My Self, by
Steven Pinker best describes these
limitations, “Our genes are a big part of what we are. But even knowing the
totality of genetic predictors, there will be many things about ourselves that
no genome scan — and for that matter, no demographic checklist — will ever
reveal”(Pinker). Pinker was asked to
participate in the project and got his genome sequenced (or as much of it as
they could). Essentially the sequencing gave Pinker percentages of “who he was”
like a higher chance of baldness therefore he should be bald and a low risk of
prostate cancer therefore he won’t get prostate cancer in his lifetime. It is
incorrect to state that the HGP is predetermining an individual’s personal and
physical state because it simply can’t. Currently modern medicine and
technology is nowhere near advance enough to accurately state that the HGP’s
linkage mapping is defiant. Even if it were, they can only give a percentage, a
likely hood of the outcome of these findings. “For some conditions, like
Huntington’s disease, genetic determinism is simply correct: everyone with the
defective gene who lives long enough will develop the condition. But for most
other traits, any influence of the genes will be probabilistic. Having a version
of a gene may change the odds, making you more or less likely to have a trait,
all things being equal, but as we shall see, the actual outcome depends on a
tangle of other circumstances as well” (Pinker).
Additionally,
this same theory can be seen through the Oankali. The Oankali are described as
having their own “blueprint” to predetermine and genetically modify a hybrid
offspring population. However, this “blueprint” itself cannot possibly
predetermine the outcome of the hybrid offspring. Overall this hybrid-human-Oankali
population will have variations that cannot be known. Based off of scientific
research like that of BRCA1 and PKU diseases we understand that such blueprints
are inaccurate because they lack significant environmental factors that do
contribute to a human’s genome. The Oankali’s in Lilith’s Brood represent modern scientists and their misconceptions
of genetic determinism. Such projects like the HGP and Oankali’s “trading” to
create a hybrid offspring population are limited because they do not account
for other factors like the environment that are just as important as genetics
when creating a human.
The Oankali’s
inaccuracies are subtly shown throughout Lilith’s
Brood. “We used to treat animals that way, we did things to them
inoculations, surgery, and isolation- all for their own good. It scares me to
have people doing things to me that I don’t understand” (Butler 33). The
Oankali do not account for psychological factors that greatly effect Lilith
during her entrapment. “You shouldn’t have isolated any of us unless your
purpose was to drive us insane. You almost succeeded with me more than once.
Humans need one another” (Butler 19). They do not understand emotional and
psychological aspects of humanity which limits their accuracy in reproducing with
our genes. The Oankali’s ignorance is a metaphor for modern scientist’s own
ignorance with genetics. The HGP has great consequences if modern scientist
truly do believe in genetic determinism. The general knowledge of an
individuals’ genome can be used against them, for example if someone is shown
to have a gene of Huntington’s disease and this information is given out as
public knowledge it will put the individual at a disadvantage, limiting their
chances of getting good health care or a stable job because who wants to invest
on someone who eventually won’t be able to control their own body (it’s a cruel
world)?
However, Butler does the very opposite of what
the Oankali and genetic determinist eventually do to themselves; instead of
loss of hope she instills it by using Akin and Jodahs to show the opportunity
for better science. The Oankali are a metaphor for modern genetic determinist,
where the Oankali fail to account for environmental factors so do modern
scientist. Akin and Jodahs are symbolic of better scientific methods that can
be used in the future. Butler instills hope in the Lilith’s Brood, first through Lilith’s hope for human survival and
improvement, then by Akin’s acknowledgement of human change and tolerance and
finally all put together by Jodahs’ adaptability and eventual compromise with
both species to form a truly hybrid generation. It’s important to understand
that a true hybrid generation would not be possible without Lilith, Akin and
Jodahs.
Also,
the Oankali were unprepared for the outcomes of Akin and Jodahs metamorphosis-
their physical change into adulthood. Akin is a human-Oankali hybrid male who
looks similar to human species which inevitably causes his capture from a group
of human resisters- those who refuse to reproduce “trade” with the Oankali.
After being released from confinement he continues to go back and visit the
human resisters and forms emotional bonds with them. After Akin’s metamorphosis,
all his physical similarities with the human species disappears. Instead of
turning against Akin, the resisters show their ability to tolerate difference
and change which leads Akin to advocate for the human’s to have their own
independent lives on mars. The Oankali had no way of understanding let alone
predetermining the psychological factors Akin went through as a construct. The
transformation for Akin was literally both external and internal. Both these factors
contributed to Akin’s ability to advocate for the human-only Mars population, as
well as, save the hybrid-Oankali species.
Another
misconception of the Oankali, was shown through Jodahs the first human-Ooloi
construct. Jodahs was seen as very dangerous and unpredictable. The Oankali
were even “surprised” to find that Jodahs could shape shift. This “unknown”
scared the Oankali population and Jodahs (with Lilith and the rest of their family)
was isolated in the deep parts of the woods. This cause Jodahs to become
increasingly depressed, physically losing its “sense of self” turning into a
sluggish-body creature. However, Jodahs physical shape-shifting eventually
provided useful with his ability to seduce and save an inbred, fertile human
community. This was the missing link to the Oankali-human connection. It catalyzed
a connection for many humans to be able to accept their differences and join
the Oankali-human families, while the fertile humans joined Akin’s human-only
population on Mars.
The
Oankali had many limitations when creating the hybrid offspring. A major factor
that they never contributed was Akin’s and Jodahs’ psychological trauma of
belonging to both species that were so unequal. Another factor, was Jodahs’
physical shape-shifting that was a completely knew physical trait for an Ooloi.
Where the Oankali failed thus the genetic determinists fail- they cannot
possibly precisely and scientifically contribute all the factors that make up
the hybrid offspring. Butler uses the Oankali’s failure as inspiration for
scientific prosper. Butler instills hope seen through Lilith’s own hope and the
other humans who have survived that there is chance of improvement. Lilith is
symbolic of hope whereas Akin of change, and Jodahs of proven solution. Lilith
represents the incompleteness- hope for the Oankali to fail (which they did,
some humans remained fertile) and humanity to grow. Akin represents their
limiations- the humans could adapt to difference and accept where the Oankali
deemed them incapable. Lastly, Jodahs is the better method, the adaptation, the
fact that genetic determinism is incomplete and thus there are better solutions
possible. Lewontin supports all of them because Lewontin supports the misconception
of genetic determinism. “Perhaps they could find an answer to what the Oankali
had done to them. And perhaps the Oankali were not perfect. A few fertile
people might slip through and find one another. Perhaps learn and run! If she were lost, others did not have to be.
Humanity did not have to be” (Butler 248).
In conclusion, there are many beliefs as to what
determines a human. The questions of what makes up our phenotype- our sense of
style, problem solving skills and skin tone is constantly debated over science
history. Many modern scientist like those creating the HGP believe in genetic
determinism- that our genome is solely predetermined by our genetic
inheritance. However, there is sound research like that of BRCA1 and PKU
inherited diseases that prove this cannot be true. Environmental factors have
such a significant role in what creates a human’s phenotype a simple conclusion
has to be made- genetic determinism is incomplete. In Lilith’s Brood Butler uses the Oankali’s inaccuracies and misconceptions
to portray the limitations of contemporary scientists. Lilith through her own
hope instills to the reader hope for improvement. Akin, shows the ability for
change and combined Jodahs shows there are solutions for better science
methods.
Works Cited:
Butler, Octavia E. Dawn.
New York: Integrated Media, n.d. Web
Freeman, Scott, et al.
"Gene Structure and Expression." Biological Science. 5th
ed. New Jersey: Parson Education Company, 2014. 237-304. Print.
ed. New Jersey: Parson Education Company, 2014. 237-304. Print.
Lewontin, R.C. Biology
as Ideology. New York: HarperCollins Publishers; 1991. Print.
"An Overview of the
Human Genome Project." National Human Genome Research
Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Nov. 2014. <http://genome.gov>.
Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Nov. 2014. <http://genome.gov>.
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